The present invention relates to the preparation of diagnostic agents comprising hollow microcapsules used to enhance ultrasound imaging.
The fact that air bubbles in the body can be used for echocardiography has been known for some time. Bubble-containing liquids can be injected into the bloodstream for this purpose (see Ophir et al (1980) xe2x80x9cUltrasonic Imagingxe2x80x9d 2, 67-77, who stabilised bubbles in a collagen membrane, U.S. Pat. No. 4,446,442 (Schering) and EP-A-131 540 (Schering)) and U.S. Pat. No. 4,718,433, 4,774,958 and 4,844,882 disclose the use of bubbles prepared by sonicating an albumin solution. However, the size distribution of the bubbles is apparently uncontrollable and the bubbles disappear when subjected to pressure experienced in the left ventricle (Shapiro et al (1990) J. Am. Coll. Cardiology, 16(7), 1603-1607).
EP-A-52575 discloses, for the same purpose, solid particles which have gas entrained in them, the gas being released from the particles in the bloodstream.
EP 458 745 (Sintetica) discloses a process of preparing air- or gas-filled microballoons by interfacial polymerisation of synthetic polymers such as polylactides and polyglycolides. WO 91/12823 (Delta Biotechnology) discloses a similar process using albumin. Wheatley et al (1990) Biomaterials 11, 713-717 discloses ionotropic gelation of alginate to form microbubbles of over 30 xcexcm diameter. WO 91/09629 discloses liposomes for use as ultrasound contrast agents. Our co-pending patent application PCT/GB92/00643 (published since the priority date of this application as WO 92/18164) discloses a spray-drying method which leads to particularly advantageous microspheres having the required strength and tightly controlled size distribution. Other spray-drying processes, for different purposes, were disclosed in Przyborowski et al (1982 Eur. J. Nucl. Med. 7, 71-72), namely the preparation of human serum albumin (HSA) microspheres for radiolabelling and subsequent use in scintigraphic imaging of the lung.
The Przyborowski et al article refers to two earlier disclosures of methods of obtaining albumin particles for lung scintigraphy. Aldrich and Johnston (1974) Int. J. Appl. Rad. Isot. 25, 15-18 disclosed the use of a spinning disc to generate 3-70 xcexcm diameter particles which are then denatured in hot oil. The oil is removed and the particles labelled with radioisotopes. Raju et al (1978) Isotopenpraxis 14(2), 57-61 used the same spinning disc technique but denatured the albumin by simply heating the particles. In neither case were hollow microspheres mentioned and the particles prepared were not suitable for echocardiography.
We have now developed our previous spray-drying process (WO 92/18164) and adapted it to produce further advantageous products.
One aspect of the present invention provides a process comprising a first step of atomising a solution or dispersion of a wall-forming material in order to obtain (i) hollow microspheres of 15-20 xcexcm diameter, (ii) hollow microspheres having a prolonged half-life in the human bloodstream or (iii) hollow microspheres which are adapted for selective targeting to an area of the human or animal body.
These three microsphere products will be termed herein xe2x80x9cthe large microspheresxe2x80x9d, xe2x80x9cthe long life microspheresxe2x80x9d and xe2x80x9cthe targeted microspheresxe2x80x9d, respectively.
Preferably, the product obtained in the said process is subjected to a second step of reducing the water-solubility of at least the outside of the said microspheres.
The said two steps may be carried out as a single process or the intermediate product of the first step may be collected and separately treated in the second step. These two possibilities are referred to hereinafter as the one step and two step processes.
The wall-forming material and process conditions should be so chosen that the product is sufficiently non-toxic and non-immunogenic in the conditions of use, which will clearly depend on the dose administered and duration of treatment. The wall-forming material may be a starch derivative, a synthetic polymer such as tert-butyloxycarbonylmethyl polyglutamate (U.S. Pat. No. 4,888,398) or a polysaccharide such as polydextrose or starch.
Generally, the wall-forming material can be selected from most hydrophilic, biodegradable physiologically compatible polymers. Among such polymers one can cite polysaccharides of low water solubility, polylactides and polyglycolides and their copolymers, copolymers of lactides and lactones such as xcex5-caprolactone, xcex4-valerolactone, polypeptides, and proteins such as gelatin, collagen, globulins and albumins. Other suitable polymers include poly(ortho)esters (see for instance U.S. Pat. No. 4,093,709; 4,131,648; 4,138,344; 4,180,646; polylactic and polyglycolic acid and their copolymers, for instance DEXON (see J. Heller (1980) Biomaterials 1, 51; poly(DL-lactide-co-xcex4-caprolactone), poly(DL-lactide-co-xcex4-valerolactone), poly(DL-lactide-co-g-butyrolactone), polyalkylcyanoacrylates; polyamides, polyhydroxybutyrate; polydioxanone; poly-xcex2-aminoketones (Polymer 23 (1982), 1693); polyphosphazenes (Science 193 (1976), 1214); and polyanhydrides. References on biodegradable polymers can be found in R. Langer et al (1983) Macromol. Chem. Phys. C23, 61-125. Polyamino-acids such as polyglutamic and polyaspartic acids can also be used as well as their derivatives, ie partial esters with lower alcohols or glycols. One useful example of such polymers is poly-(t,butyl-glutamate). Copolymers with other amino-acids such as methionine, leucine, valine, proline, glycine, alamine, etc are also possible. Recently some novel derivatives of polyglutamic and polyaspartic acid with controlled biodegradability have been reported (see WO 87/03891; U.S. Pat. No. 4,888,398 and EP 130 935 incorporated here by reference). These polymers (and copolymers with other amino-acids) have formulae of the following type:
xe2x80x94(NHxe2x80x94CHAxe2x80x94CO)x(NHxe2x80x94CHXxe2x80x94CO)y
where X designates the side chain of an amino-acid residue and A is a group of formula xe2x80x94(CH2)COOR1R2OCOR(II), with R1 and R2 being H or lower alkyls, and R being alkyl or aryl; or R and R1 are connected together by a substituted or unsubstituted linking member to provide 5- or 6-membered rings.
A can also represent groups of formulae:
xe2x80x94(CH2)nCOOxe2x80x94CHR1COORxe2x80x83xe2x80x83(I)
and
xe2x80x94(CH2)nCO(NHxe2x80x94CHXxe2x80x94CO)mNHxe2x80x94CH(COOH)xe2x80x94(CH2)pCOOHxe2x80x83xe2x80x83(III)
and corresponding anhydrides. In all these formulae n, m and p are lower integers (not exceeding 5) and x and y are also integers selected for having molecular weights not below 5000.
The aforementioned polymers are suitable for making the microspheres according to the invention and, depending on the nature of substituents R, R1, R2 and X, the properties of the wall can be controlled, for instance, strength, elasticity and biodegradability. For instance X can be methyl (alanine), isopropyl (valine), isobutyl (leucine and isoleucine) or benzyl (phenylalanine).
Preferably, the wall-forming material is proteinaceous. For example, it may be collagen, gelatin or (serum) albumin, in each case preferably of human origin (ie derived from humans or corresponding in structure to the human protein). Most preferably, it is human serum albumin (HA) derived from blood donations or from the fermentation of microorganisms (including cell lines) which have been transformed or transfected to express HA.
Techniques for expressing HA (which term includes analogues and fragments of human albumin, for example those of EP-A-322094, and polymers of monomeric albumin) are disclosed in, for example, EP-A-201239 and EP-A-286424. All references are included herein by reference. xe2x80x9cAnalogues and fragmentsxe2x80x9d of HA include all polypeptides (i) which are capable of forming a microsphere in the process of the invention and (ii) of which a continuous region of at least 50% (preferably at least 75%, 80%, 90% or 95%) of the amino acid sequence has at least 80% sequence identity (preferably at least 90%, 95% or 99% identity) with a continuous region of at least 50% (preferably 75%, 80%, 90% or 95%) of human albumin. HA which is produced by recombinant DNA techniques is particularly preferred. Thus, the HA may be produced by expressing an HA-encoding nucleotide sequence in yeast or in another microorganism and purifying the product, as is known in the art.
In the following description of preferred embodiments, the term xe2x80x9cproteinxe2x80x9d is used since this is what we prefer but it is to be understood that other biocompatible wall-forming materials can be used, as discussed above.
The protein solution or dispersion is preferably 0.1 to 50% w/v, more preferably about 5.0-25.0% protein, particularly when the protein is albumin. About 20% is optimal. Mixtures of wall-forming materials may be used, in which case the percentages in the last two sentences refer to the total content of wall-forming material.
The preparation to be sprayed may contain substances other than the wall-forming material and solvent or carrier liquid. Thus, the aqueous phase may contain 1-20% by weight of water-soluble hydrophilic compounds like sugars and polymers as stabilizers, eg polyvinyl alcohol (PVA), polyvinyl pyrrolidone (PVP), polyethylene glycol (PEG), gelatin, polyglutamic acid and polysaccharides such as starch, dextran, agar, xanthan and the like. Similar aqueous phases can be used as the carrier liquid in which the final microsphere product is suspended before use. Emulsifiers may be used (0.1-5% by weight) including most physiologically acceptable emulsifiers, for instance egg lecithin or soya bean lecithin, or synthetic lecithins such as saturated synthetic lecithins, for example, dimyristoyl phosphatidyl choline, dipalmitoyl phosphatidyl choline or distearoyl phosphatidyl choline or unsaturated synthetic lecithins, such as dioleyl phosphatidyl choline or dilinoleyl phosphatidyl choline. Emulsifiers also include surfactants such as free fatty acids, esters of fatty acids with polyoxyalkylene compounds like polyoxypropylene glycol and polyoxyethylene glycol; ethers of fatty alcohols with polyoxyalkylene glycols; esters of fatty acids with polyoxyalkylated sorbitan; soaps; glycerol-polyalkylene stearate; glycerol-polyoxyethylene ricinoleate; homo- and copolymers of polyalkylene glycols; polyethoxylated soya-oil and castor oil as well as hydrogenated derivatives; ethers and esters of sucrose or other carbohydrates with fatty acids, fatty alcohols, these being optionally polyoxyalkylated; mono-, di- and triglycerides of saturated or unsaturated fatty acids, glycerides or soya-oil and sucrose.
Additives can be incorporated into the wall of the microspheres to modify the physical properties such as dispersibility, elasticity and water permeability.
Among the useful additives, one may cite compounds which can xe2x80x9chydrophobizexe2x80x9d the wall in order to decrease water permeability, such as fats, waxes and high molecular-weight hydrocarbons. Additives which improve dispersibility of the microspheres in the injectable liquid-carrier are amphipathic compounds like the phospholipids; they also increase water permeability and rate of biodegradability.
Additives which increase wall elasticity are the plasticizers like isopropyl myristate and the like. Also, very useful additives are constituted by polymers akin to that of the wall itself but with relatively low molecular weight. For instance when using copolymers of polylactic/polyglycolic type as the wall-forming material, the properties of the wall can be modified advantageously (enhanced softness and biodegradability) by incorporating, as additives, low molecular weight (1000 to 15,000 Dalton) polyglycolides or polylactides. Also polyethylene glycol of moderate to low MW (eg PEG 2000) is a useful softening additive.
The quantity of additives to be incorporated in the wall is extremely variable and depends on the needs. In some cases no additive is used at all; in other cases amounts of additives which may reach about 20% by weight of the wall are possible.
The protein solution or dispersion (preferably solution), referred to hereinafter as the xe2x80x9cprotein preparationxe2x80x9d, is atomised and spray-dried by any suitable technique which results in discrete microspheres of 1.00-50.0 xcexcm diameter. These figures refer to at least 90% of the population of microspheres, the diameter being measured with a Coulter Master Sizer II. The term xe2x80x9cmicrospheresxe2x80x9d means hollow particles enclosing a space, which space is filled with a gas or vapour but not with any solid materials. Honeycombed particles resembling the confectionery sold in the UK as xe2x80x9cMaltesersxe2x80x9d (Regd TM) are not formed. It is not necessary for the space to be totally enclosed (although this is preferred) and it is not necessary for the microspheres to be precisely spherical, although they are generally spherical. If the microspheres are not spherical, then the diameters referred to above relate to the diameter of a corresponding spherical microsphere having the same mass and enclosing the same volume of hollow space as the non-spherical microsphere.
The atomising comprises forming an aerosol of the protein preparation by, for example, forcing the preparation through at least one orifice under pressure into, or by using a centrifugal atomizer in, a chamber of warm air or other inert gas. The chamber should ideally be big enough for the largest ejected drops not to strike the walls before drying. The gas or vapour in the chamber is clean (ie preferably sterile and pyrogen-free) and non-toxic when administered into the bloodstream in the amounts concomitant with administration of the microspheres in echocardiography. The rate of evaporation of the liquid from the protein preparation should be sufficiently high to form hollow microspheres but not so high as to burst the microspheres.
The rate of evaporation may be controlled by varying the gas flow rate, concentration of protein in the protein preparation, nature of liquid carrier, feed rate of the solution and, most importantly, the temperature of the gas encountered by the aerosol. With an albumin concentration of 15-25% in water, an inlet gas temperature of at least about 100xc2x0 C., preferably at least 110xc2x0 C., is generally sufficient to ensure hollowness and the temperature may be as high as 250xc2x0 C. without the capsules bursting. About 180-240xc2x0 C., preferably about 210-230xc2x0 C. and most preferably about 220xc2x0 C., is optimal, at least for albumin. The temperature may, in the one step version of the process of the invention, be sufficient to insolubilise at least part (usually the outside) of the wall-forming material and frequently substantially all of the wall-forming material. Since the temperature of the gas encountered by the aerosol will depend also on the rate at which the aerosol is delivered and on the liquid content of the protein preparation, the outlet temperature may be monitored to ensure an adequate temperature in the chamber. An outlet temperature of 40-150xc2x0 C. has been found to be suitable. Apart from this factor, however, controlling the flow rate has not been found to be as useful as controlling the other parameters.
In the two step process, the intermediate microspheres comprise typically 96-98% monomeric HA and have a limited in vivo life time for ultrasound imaging. They may, however, be used for ultrasound imaging (at least in some uses of the microspheres of the invention), or they may be stored and transported before the second step of the two step process is carried out. They therefore form a further aspect of the invention.
In the second step of the process, the intermediate microspheres prepared in the first step are fixed and rendered less water-soluble so that they persist for longer whilst not being so insoluble and inert that they are not biodegradable. This step also strengthens the microspheres so that they are better able to withstand the rigours of administration, vascular shear and ventricular pressure. If the microspheres burst, they become less echogenic. Schneider et al (1992) Invest. Radiol 27, 134-139 showed that prior art sonicated albumin microbubbles do not have this strength and rapidly lose their echogenicity when subjected to pressures typical of the left ventricle. The second step of the process may employ heat (for example microwave heat, radiant heat or hot air, for example in a conventional oven), ionising irradiation (with, for example, a 10.0-100.0 kGy dose of gamma rays) or chemical cross-linking using, for example, formaldehyde, glutaraldehyde, ethylene oxide or other agents for cross-linking proteins and is preferably carried out on the substantially dry intermediate microspheres formed in the first step, or on a suspension of such microspheres in a liquid in which the microspheres are insoluble, for example a suitable solvent. In the one step version of the process, a cross-linking agent such as glutaraldehyde may be sprayed into the spray-drying chamber or may be introduced into the protein preparation just upstream of the spraying means. Alternatively, the temperature in the chamber may be high enough to insolubilise the microspheres.
The xe2x80x9clong life microspheresxe2x80x9d and the xe2x80x9ctargeted microspheresxe2x80x9d may, if one wishes, consist of microspheres having a diameter of 0.05 to 50.0 xcexcm (measured in the same way as the intermediate microspheres), but ranges of 0.1 to 20.0 xcexcm and especially 1.0 to 8.0 xcexcm are obtainable with the process of the invention and are preferred for echocardiography. We have found that a range of about 0.5 to 3.0 xcexcmay be especially suitable for the production of a low contrast image and for use in colour Doppler imaging, whereas a range of about 4.0 to 6.0 xcexcm may be better for the production of sharp images. One needs to take into account the fact that the second step may alter the size of the microspheres in determining the size produced in the first step.
It has been found that the process of the invention can be controlled in order to obtain microspheres with desired characteristics. Thus, the pressure at which the protein solution is supplied to the spray nozzle may be varied, for example from 1.0-10.0xc3x97105 Pa, preferably 2.0-6.0xc3x97105 Pa and most preferably about 5xc3x97105 Pa. Other parameters may be varied as disclosed above and below. In this way, novel microspheres may be obtained.
A further aspect of the invention provides large, long life or targeted hollow microspheres in which more than 30%, preferably more than 40%, 50%, or 60%, of the microspheres have a diameter within a 2 xcexcm range and, in the case of the long life or targeted microspheres, at least 90%, preferably at least 95% or 99%, have a diameter within the range 1.0-8.0 xcexcm. In the case of the large microspheres, the corresponding diameter range is 12-25 xcexcm.
Thus, the interquartile range may be 2 xcexcm, with a median diameter (for the long life or targeted microspheres) of 3.5, 4.0, 4.5, 5.0, 5.5, 6.0 or 6.5 xcexcm.
Thus, at least 30%, 40%, 50% or 60% of the long life or targeted microspheres may have diameters within the range 1.5-3.5 xcexcm, 2.0-4.0 xcexcm, 3.0-5.0 xcexcm, 4.0-6.0 xcexcm, 5.0-7.0 xcexcm or 6.0-8.0 xcexcm. Preferably a said percentage of the said microspheres have diameters within a 1.0 xcexcm range, such as 1.5-2.5 xcexcm, 2.0-3.0 xcexcm, 3.0-4.0 xcexcm, 4.0-5.0 xcexcm, 5.0-6.0 xcexcm, 6.0-7.0 xcexcm or 7.0-8.0 xcexcm.
A further aspect of the invention provides large, long life or targeted hollow microspheres with proteinaceotus walls in which at least 90%, preferably at least 95% or 99%, of the microspheres have a diameter in the range 1.0-8.0 xcexcm (or, in the case of the large microspheres, 12-25 xcexcm); at least 90%, preferably at least 95% or 99%, of the microspheres have a wall thickness of 40-500 nm, preferably 100-500 nm, and at least 50% of the protein in the walls of the microspheres is cross-linked.
Scanning electron microscopy of the microcapsules shows that they are hollow spheres with no solid matter other than in the wall. Hence, the wall thickness can either be measured microscopically or can be calculated as follows. The mass of wall-forming material in each of the sprayed droplets is given by                                                         Mass              =                              xe2x80x83                            ⁢                                                (                                      volume                    ⁢                                          xe2x80x83                                        ⁢                    of                    ⁢                                          xe2x80x83                                        ⁢                    droplet                                    )                                ⁢                                  xe2x80x83                                xc3x97                                                                                                        xe2x80x83                            ⁢                              (concentration  of  wall-forming  material  in                                                                                                          xe2x80x83                            ⁢                              solution                ⁢                                  xe2x80x83                                ⁢                sprayed                            )                                                                          =                              xe2x80x83                            ⁢                                                4                  3                                ⁢                                  xe2x80x83                                ⁢                π                ⁢                                  xe2x80x83                                ⁢                                  r                  e                  3                                ⁢                c                                                                        (        I        )            
where re is the radius of the droplet and c is the said concentration.
Our studies have shown that the external dimension of the droplet is essentially unchanged whilst the solvent is evaporated off. The mass of wall-forming material in the dried microcapsule is therefore given by                     mass        =                              4            3                    ⁢                      xe2x80x83                    ⁢                      π            ⁡                          (                                                r                  e                  3                                -                                  r                  i                  3                                            )                                ⁢          ρ                                    (        II        )            
where re is the external radius of the microcapsule (same as that of the droplet), ri is the internal radius of the microcapsule and xcfx81 is the density of the wall-forming material. The wall thickness is then represented by rexe2x88x92ri. The quantity re is known from straightforward measurement of the microcapsules using a Coulter Counter, and ri is obtained by                               r          i                =                                            r              e              3                        -                                                            r                  e                  3                                ⁢                c                            ρ                                3                                    (        III        )            
Hence, for an external diameter of 5 xcexcn (external radius of 2.5 xcexcm), a concentration in the solution sprayed of 0.2 g/ml (20%) and a wall density of 1.31 g/cm3 (determinable by helium pycnometry), the wall thickness can be calculated to be 134 nm.
Preferably, at least 75%, 90%, 95%, 98.0%, 98.5% or 99% of the protein in any of the three kinds of inicrospheres of the invention is sufficiently cross-linked to be resistant to extraction with a 1% HCl solution for 2 minutes. Extracted protein is detected using the Coomassie Blue protein assay, Bradford. The protein content in the washings is expressed as a percentage of the original mass of microcapsules.
The degree of cross-linking is controlled by varying the heating, irradiation or chemical treatment of the protein. During the cross-linking process, protein monomer is cross-linked and quickly becomes unavailable in a simple dissolution process, as detected by gel permeation HPLC or gel electrophoresis, as is shown in Example 8 below. Continued treatment leads to further cross-linking of already cross-linked material such that it becomes unavailable in the HCl extraction described above. During heating at 175xc2x0 C., rHA microspheres in accordance with the invention lose about 99% of HCl-extractable protein over the course of 20 minutes, whereas, at 150xc2x0 C., 20 minutes"" heating removes only about 5% HCl-extractable protein, 30 mins removes 47.5%, 40 mins 83%, 60 mins 93%, 80 mins 97% and 100 mins removes 97.8% of the HCl-extractable protein. To achieve good levels of cross-linking therefore, the microspheres may be heated at 175xc2x0 C. for at least 17 (preferably 20-40 mins, most preferably 35-40 mins) mins, at 150xc2x0 C. for at least 80 mins and at other temperatures for correspondingly longer or shorter times. We have found that serum-derived albumin needs less time to cross-link than rHA.
The injectable microspheres of the present invention can be stored dry in the presence or in the absence of additives to improve conservation and prevent coalescence. As additives, one may select from 0.1 to 25% by weight of water-soluble physiologically acceptable compounds such as mannitol, galactose, lactose or sucrose or hydrophilic polymers like dextran, xanthan, agar, starch, PVP, polyglutamic acid, polyvinylalcohol (PVA) and gelatin.
In order to minimise any agglomeration of the microspheres, the microspheres can be milled with a suitable inert excipient using a Fritsch centrifugal pin mill equipped with a 0.5 mm screen, or a Glen Creston air impact jet mill. Suitable excipients are finely milled powders which are inert and suitable for intravenous use, such as lactose, glucose, mannitol, sorbitol, galactose, maltose or sodium chloride. Once milled, the microspheres/excipient mixture can be suspended in aqueous medium to facilitate removal of non-functional/defective microspheres. Upon reconstitution in the aqueous phase, it is desirable to include a trace amount of surfactant to prevent agglomeration. Anionic, cationic and non-ionic surfactants suitable for this purpose include poloxamers, sorbitan esters, polysorbates and lecithin.
The microsphere suspension may then be allowed to float, or may be centrifuged to sediment any defective particles which have surface defects which would, in use, cause them to fill with liquid and be no longer echogenic.
The microsphere suspension may then be remixed to ensure even particle distribution, washed and reconstituted in a buffer suitable for intravenous injection such as 0.15M NaCl 0.01 mM Tris pH 7.0. The suspension may be aliquoted for freeze drying and subsequent sterilisation by, for example, gamma irradiation, dry heating or ethylene oxide.
An alternative method for deagglomeration of the insolubilised or fixed microspheres is to suspend them directly in an aqueous medium containing a surfactant chosen from poloxamers, sorbitan esters, polysorbates and lecithin. Deagglomeration may then be achieved using a suitable homogeniser.
The microsphere suspension may then be allowed to float or may be centrifuged to sediment the defective particles, as above, and further treated as above.
Although the microspheres of this invention can be marketed in the dry state, more particularly when they are designed with a limited life time after injection, it may be desirable to also sell ready-made preparations, ie suspensions of microspheres in an aqueous liquid carrier ready for injection.
The product is generally, however, supplied and stored as a dry powder and is suspended in a suitable sterile, non-pyrogenic liquid just before administration.
A further aspect of the invention provides large, long life or targeted hollow microspheres, at least 10% of the microspheres, when suspended in water, being capable of surviving a 0.25 s application of a pressure of 2.66xc3x97104 Pa without bursting, collapsing or filling with water. The transient maximum pressure in the human left ventricle is about 200 mmHg (2.66xc3x97104 Pa). Preferably 50%, 75%, 90% or 100% survive the said 0.25 s application of 2.66xc3x97104 Pa when tested as above, ie remain echogenic. In vivo, preferably the same percentages will remain echogenic during one passage through both ventricles of the heart.
The xe2x80x9clargexe2x80x9d microspheres of the invention are characterised by the fact that at least 90%, preferably at least 95% or 99%, of the microspheres have a diameter within the range 10.1-19.9 xcexcm, preferably 13-18 xcexcm.
It should be noted that these microspheres are xe2x80x9clargexe2x80x9d only in relation to the preferred microspheres of our earlier patent application WO 92/18164 and in relation to the preferred sizes of long life and targeted microspheres disclosed herein; prior art microspheres were frequently larger than 25 xcexcm.
The large microspheres of the invention may be produced by controlling the parameters of the spray-drying process. The concentration of the wall-forming material in the liquid to be sprayed may be the same as for the smaller microspheres described above, namely 0.1-50.0% w/v (preferably about 5.0-25.0%, especially when the wall-forming material is albumin), as may the temperature in the warm chamber (100-250xc2x0 C., preferably 200-250xc2x0 C.) and the second step of the process, but the spraying pressure is reduced to less than 2 bar (2xc3x97105 Pa) and is preferably no more than 1.8xc3x97105 Pa, 1.5xc3x97105 Pa or 1.3xc3x97105 Pa. A minimum pressure of 1xc3x97105 Pa is preferred.
The large microspheres of the invention are suitable for use as a deposit echocontrast agent to delineate under-perfused areas of microcirculation. We have found that microspheres of mean size 15.0 xcexcm have echogenicities some 4.6xc3x97104 fold higher than similar microspheres of mean size 5.0 xcexcm. Hence, a relatively low dose can be used to image regions deep inside the body which are inaccessible to normal ultrasound techniques. The microspheres can be delivered by known techniques using a catheter to deliver the microspheres to, for example, the capillaries of the liver, kidney or coronary blood vessels. An advantage, compared to classical radiolabelled microsphere studies, is that, following arterial administration, catheter withdrawal and patient stabilisation, multiple plane images may be taken to build a 3D perfusion map of the myocardium or similar capillary bed. Regional myocardial blood flow can be qualitatively assessed in patients with coronary artery disease at the time of angiography by imaging the heart following the direct intracoronary injection of the microspheres. These microspheres are trapped in the microvasculature of the heart during the initial transmit through the coronary circulation. Since only a very small fraction of the capillaries or arterioles is embolized, no detectable adverse haemodynamic or electrophysiological effects are expected. When nutrient blood flow to a segment of the left ventricular myocardium is diminished, as in a region of myocardial scar or in a region supplied by an occluded or severely stenotic coronary artery, the number of microspheres delivered to these segments is reduced. This is appreciated as a focal reduction in activity secondary to regional underperfusion. Because the microspheres are introduced into the arteries, removal of the microspheres in the capillaries of the lung is avoided.
In the context of angiography, a catheter is placed within the left ventricle via insertion in the femoral artery. X-ray opaque dyes are injected both in the left ventricle and within the coronary arteries themselves. Injection of such agents enables the visualisation of vessels to the 100 xcexcm diameter level by projecting the 3D information onto a 2D plane. Currently angiography enables stenosis of the major coronary arteries to be identified.
The use of the large microspheres of the invention with ultrasound technology may enable the generation of multiple tomographic images and also 3D reconstruction of images With the microspheres depositing for sufficient time to enable tomographic images or 3D image reconstruction of the vascular bed, perfusion beds may be delineated. Therefore, as an adjunct to angiography to identify the major causative lesion, a deposit echocontrast agent constituted by the large microspheres of the invention may enable 3D perfusion territories to be identified.
Due to the pressure stability of the preferred microspheres, they retain air and hence echogenicity for a substantial period of time. The microspheres may deposit in the vasculature following catheter administration in a manner similar to classical microsphere studies, reflecting the amount of flow to any given perfusion territory. Imaging of the territory may then be made after catheter withdrawal and patient stabilisation, to enable more optimal images in multiple planes to be gathered. Comparison with a baseline unenhanced image thus enables the perfusion, following a corrective procedure, to be assessed.
The microspheres may be tailored for intracoronary use not only by manipulation of their size and pressure stability but also by their rate of biodegradation.
For intracoronary use, it is preferable to crosslink the large (10-20 xcexcm) microcapsules at 175xc2x0 C. for a period of 18-60 minutes, more preferably 20-40 minutes and most preferably 35-40 minutes. This yields microcapsules that are pressure resistant but have a shortened tissue half life compared to the microcapsules of WO 92118164 and therefore are more applicable to use in the microcirculation of the myocardium. The tissue half-life can be measured by labelling the microcapsules with 125I by the Chloramine T method and assessing the organ content of microcapsules by necropsy or the release of 125I into the urine and faeces.
The xe2x80x9ctargetedxe2x80x9d microspheres of the invention are characterised by having in or on their walls a material to direct or target the microspheres to a desired location in the body.
The xe2x80x9ctargetedxe2x80x9d microspheres of the invention may be prepared by including in or on the wall of the microsphere material which alters the electrical charge of the microsphere.
Thus, a positive or negative charge can be imparted by applying a positively or negatively charged material, respectively, or existing positive or negative charges can be reduced or eliminated. These effects can be achieved in a variety of ways. The final product (ie pressure resistant) microspheres produced by the basic one or two step process described above may be milled as described above and resuspended at a microsphere concentration of 1.0-250xc3x97106/ml in: a 0.5-20.0% w/v solution (preferably 1.0-10.0% w/v, for example about 5%) of a positively or negatively charged material (if polymeric of 1-30 kD, preferably 5-15 kD) and incubated for 5-60 hours (preferably about 8-24 hours) at 5-30xc2x0 C. (preferably about 20xc2x0 C.). Positively charged polyamino acids include polylysine, polyaspartamide, polyarginate and polyhistidine. Negatively charged polyamino acids include polyglutamate and polyaspartate. Other negatively charged polymers include phospholipids, hyaluronic acid and polygluconic acid. An advantage of such coated echocontrast agents is to increase the echogenicity of the blood pool to enable signal enhancement of doppler signals.
Alternatively, and more preferably, positive or negative charges on microspheres may be increased by incorporating the material in the spraydrying feedstock in the range of 1-30%, preferably 2-10% w/v. This latter method is particularly preferred for polyglutamnate, and for negatively charged additives generally.
Other materials which can be used in the same way to impart a negative charge include anhydrides and chlorides of C1-10 organic acids, such as acetic, fumaric and succinic acids. A final concentration of the chloride or anhydride of 5-1000 mg/ml is generally suitable, in a non-polar solvent such as dimethylformamide or tetrahydrofuran. An incubation time of 0.5-5 hours, preferably about 1 hour, at 5-30xc2x0 C., preferably about 20xc2x0 C., is suitable, followed by washing with excess water.
Existing negative charges on the microspheres prepared by the basic spray-drying process may be removed by exposing the microspheres to a carbodiimide agent such as N-ethyl-N1-(3-dimethylaminopropyl)carbodiimide hydrochloride (EDC), at a concentration of about 5-1000 mg/ml for a period of about 5-30 hours (preferably about 16 hours) at 5-30xc2x0 C. (preferably about 20xc2x0 C.). Excess reagent is then quenched with, for example, ethanolamine to an equivalent concentration during a further such incubation before the microspheres are washed.
The electrophoretic mobility of the microspheres may be assessed in a Malvern Zeta sizer or in a Pen Kema System 3000 (USA) minielectrophoresis cell, for example for 20 particles in buffers of pH4-10. Preferably, the electrophoretic mobility is in one of the ranges plus or minus 0.001-5.0xc3x9710xe2x88x928 m/sec/v/cm. In these ranges the charge upon the microspheres alters their circulatory behaviour. More preferably, the mobility is in one of the ranges plus or minus 0.01 to 0.5xc3x9710xe2x88x928 m/sec/v/cm, suitably in one of the ranges plus or minus 0.1 to 0.5xc3x9710xe2x88x928 m/sec/v/cm.
In all of these methods of altering the charge on the microspheres, the resulting microspheres may finally be formulated for storage as described above, for example suspending them in a mannitol/Pluronic F68 solution, flash freezing and freeze-drying.
The surface charge of microcapsules can affect the imaging properties of the product through its influence on the in vivo fate of particles. For example, it is known that after intravenous injection negatively charged polystyrene particles are taken up at high efficiency by the liver, whereas particles with a positive charge accumulate initially in the lung. Additionally, it is known that the endothelial cell surface is coated with a glycocalyx carrying a net negative charge at physiological pH values. The inner surface of endothelium may therefore be stained with collodial iron particles carrying a net positive charge. Therefore, in areas of slow or sluggish flow, such as that experienced in the capillary beds of the peripheral vasculature, liver, kidney and myocardium, increasing the net positive charge on the microcapsule shell and endothelial lining may lead to hindered transit through the microcirculation. This creates the possibility of extended imaging windows or even deposit echocontrast agents for analysis of the microvasculatture following intravenous administration.
The xe2x80x9clong-lifexe2x80x9d microspheres have an increased circulation time in the body, such that serum txc2xd is at least 5 minutes, preferably at least 10 minutes and most preferably at least 15 minutes. Such increased circulation times may be achieved by coating the microspheres with a material which directs the microspheres away from the reticul-endothelial system.
In vivo txc2xd may be assessed by labelling the microcapsules with 125I using the well known Chloramine T method, and administering them into the ear vein of a male adult New Zealand rabbit as is generally described in Specific Example 10 below. The serum level of 125I is measured by gamma counting.
For example, the said material may be one which reduces or substantially prevents xe2x80x9copsonizationxe2x80x9d, the deposition of proteinaceous material (such as fibrinogen) on the microspheres, thus directing the microspheres away from the liver and spleen. Suitable materials with which to coat the microspheres include block copolymers of the poloxamer series (ie polyethylene glycol/polyethylene oxide copolymers), such as poloxamer 338, poloxamer 407 and poloxamer 908.
By prolonging the circulatory half-life of highly pressure resistant air-containing microcapsules, areas of very low flow such as found in the capillary beds are detectable beyond enhanced doppler studies. Abnormal blood flow associated with hepatocellular carcinomas, renal carcinomas, and breast tumours can be detected with use of Doppler techniques. In general, larger malignant tumours show the greatest signal changes, and the abnormal Doppler signals become more difficult to detect in smaller tumours. With malignant breast tumours, for instance, the low signal strength from moving scatterers whose echo is xe2x80x9cdilutedxe2x80x9d by that of stationary solid tissue is one limiting factor in the detection of small tumours. One criterion for the Doppler detection of tumour flow is the inhomogeneity of the spatial distribution of vessels after neovascularization. Contrast enhancement allows the display of smaller vessels and hence increase the utility of this criterion in colour Doppler studies. The agent may enhance backscatter in both tumour and normal vessels. Enhanced blood reflectivity improves detection and differentiation of small tumours in such organs as the breast, liver, kidneys, pancreas and ovaries.
Also, the ultrasound contrast agent may help differentiate areas of normal vascularity from areas of reduced or absent flow due to the presence of tumour or necrosis. The demonstration of normal parenchymal arterial flow within areas that were considered abnormal may help to distinguish normal parenchyma from pseudotumours (focal fatty infiltration of the liver or renal columns of Bertin). Ultrasound contrast agents also may enhance echoes from arterial blood for the detection of ischemia or occlusion. In cases of partial occlusion, the flow is often fast enough for Doppler detection, but the quantity of blood (which, with tissue attenuation, determines the signal strength) passing through the narrowing may not be great enough to be detected with current Doppler equipment. Under certain circumstances, the introduction of more reflectors can aid delineation of the site of narrowing. A contrast agent may also aid the visualization of collaterals caused by occlusion or severe stenosis.
The long-life microspheres are prepared in the same way as the targeted microspheres described above, in other words the coating material may be applied to a suspension of the spray-dried microspheres before they are freeze-dried or included in the spray feedstock.
A suspension of the microspheres of the invention is generally administered by injection of about 1.0-10.0 ml into a suitable vein such as the cubital vein or other bloodvessel. A microsphere concentration of about 1.0xc3x97105 to 1.0xc3x971012 particles/ml is suitable, preferably about 5.0xc3x97105 to 5.0xc3x97109.
Although ultrasonic imaging is applicable to various animal and human body organ systems, one of its main applications is in obtaining images of myocardial tissue and perfusion or blood flow patterns.
The techniques use ultrasonic scanning equipment consisting of a scanner and imaging apparatus. The equipment produces visual images of a predetermined area, in this case the heart region of a human body. Typically, the transducer is placed directly on the skin over the area to be imaged. The scanner houses various electronic components including ultrasonic transducers. The transducer produces ultrasonic waves which perform a sector scan of the heart region. The ultrasonic waves are reflected by the various portions of the heart region and are received by the receiving transducer and processed in accordance with pulse-echo methods known in the art. After processing, signals are sent to the imaging apparatus (also well known in the art) for viewing.
In the method of the present invention, after the patient is xe2x80x9cpreppedxe2x80x9d and the scanner is in place, the microsphere suspension is injected, for example through an arm vein. The contrast agent flows through the vein to the right venous side of the heart, through the main pulmonary artery, leading to the lungs, across the lungs, through the capillaries, into the pulmonary vein and finally into the left atrium and the left ventricular cavity of the heart.
With the microspheres of this invention, observations and diagnoses can be made with respect to the amount of time required for the blood to pass through the lungs, blood flow patterns, the size of the left atrium, the competence of the mitral valve (which separates the left atrium and left ventricle), chamber dimensions in the left ventricular cavity and wall motion abnormalities. Upon ejection of the contrast agent from the left ventricle, the competence of the aortic valve also may be analyzed, as well as the ejection fraction or percentage of volume ejected from the left ventricle. Finally, the contrast patterns in the tissue will indicate which areas, if any, are not being adequately perfused.
In summary, such a pattern of images will help diagnose unusual blood flow characteristics within the heart, valvular competence, chamber sizes and wall motion, and will provide a potential indicator of myocardial perfusion.
The microspheres may permit left heart imaging from intravenous injections. The albumin microspheres, when injected into a peripheral vein, may be capable of transpulmonary passage. This results in echocardiographic opacification of the left ventricle (LV) cavity as well as myocardial tissue.
Besides the scanner briefly described above, there exist other ultrasonic scanners, examples of which are disclosed in U.S. Pat. Nos. 4,134,554 and 4,315,435, the disclosures of which are herein incorporated by reference. Basically, these patents relate to various techniques including dynamic cross-sectional echography (DCE) for producing sequential two-dimensional images of cross-sectional slices of animal or human anatomy by means of ultrasound energy at a frame rate sufficient to enable dynamic visualisation of moving organs. Types of apparatus utilised in DCE are generally called DCE scanners and transmit and receive short, sonic pulses in the form of narrow beams or lines. The reflected signals"" strength is a function of time, which is converted to a position using a nominal sound speed, and is displayed on a cathode ray tube or other suitable devices in a manner somewhat analogous to radar or sonar displays. While DCE can be used to produce images of many organ systems including the liver, gall bladder, pancreas and kidney, it is frequently used for visualisation of tissue and major blood vessels of the heart.
The microspheres may be used for imaging a wide variety of areas, even when injected at a peripheral venous site. Those areas include (without limitation): (1) the venous drainage system to the heart; (2) the myocardial tissue and perfusion characteristics during an exercise treadmill test or the like; and (3) myocardial tissue after an oral ingestion or intravenous injection of drugs designed to increase blood flow to the tissue. Additionally, the microspheres may be useful in delineating changes in the myocardial tissue perfusion due to interventions such as (1) coronary artery vein grafting; (2) coronary artery angioplasty (balloon dilation of a narrowed artery); (3) use of thrombolytic agents (such as streptokinase) to dissolve clots in coronary arteries; or (4) perfusion defects or changes due to a recent heart attack.
Furthermore, at the time of a coronary angiogram (or a digital subtraction angiogram) an injection of the microspheres may provide data with respect to tissue perfusion characteristics that would augment and complement the data obtained from the angiogram procedure, which identifies only the anatomy of the blood vessels.
Through the use of the microspheres of the present invention, other non-cardiac organ systems including the liver, spleen and kidney that are presently imaged by ultrasonic techniques may be suitable for enhancement of such currently obtainable images, and/or the generation of new images showing perfusion and flow characteristics that had not previously been susceptible to imaging using prior art ultrasonic imaging techniques.
Preferred aspects of the present invention will now be described by way of example and with reference to: